Tibet, provincial-level administrative area of China, in the southwestern part of the country. Officially Tibet (Chinese Xizang) Autonomous Region, it is bounded on the north by Xinjiang Uygur (Sinkiang Uighur) Autonomous Region and Qinghai (Ch'ing-hai) Province; on the east by Sichuan (Szechwan) and Yunnan provinces; on the south by Burma, India, Bhutan, and Nepal; and on the west by India. Tibet is the highest region on earth, having an average elevation of more than 4875 m (more than 16,000 ft); for this reason it is sometimes called the Roof of the World. It is also one of the world's most isolated regions, surrounded on three sides by vast mountain systems, namely the Himalaya on the south, the Karakoram on the west, and the Kunlun Mountains on the north. Tibet has a total area of about 1,200,000 sq km (about 463,320 sq mi).

Land and Resources
The southern part of Tibet falls wholly within the Himalaya. Many of the world's highest summits are situated in the main Himalayan chain, extending along the entire southern frontier. Among the principal peaks are Everest (8848 m/29,028 ft), the world's loftiest mountain; Namzha Parwa (7756 m/25,445 ft); and Gurla Mandhata (7728 m/25,355 ft). Another Himalayan chain, commonly known as the Trans-Himalaya, lies parallel to the main chain on the north, and has peaks up to about 7300 m (about 24,000 ft) in elevation. Between this chain and the main chain is a river valley region, which extends about 1000 km (about 620 mi) from east to west. The Brahmaputra River (known in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo) flows from west to east through most of this region. The Trans-Himalaya chain slopes north to the Northern (or Tibetan) Plateau. This is a vast tableland extending to the Karakoram on the west and the Kunlun Mountains on the north. The Northern Plateau is broken by mountain outcroppings and has an average elevation of about 4570 m (about 15,000 ft). It slopes gradually to the south and east. The eastern part of Tibet is a rugged region of numerous northern-southern trending mountain ranges, interspersed with deep valleys.

Rivers and Lakes
Tibet is the principal watershed of Asia and the source of many of the continent's major rivers. The Brahmaputra is Tibet's most important river. The Indus, Ganges, and Sutlej rivers have their headwaters in western Tibet. The Salween River (Nu Jiang) rises in central Tibet, and headwaters of the Mekong (Lancang Jiang), Yangtze (Chang Jiang), and Huang He (Huang Ho, or Yellow River) are found in northern Tibet. Many of Tibet's rivers have great potential for hydroelectric development. The Northern Plateau is dotted with numerous brackish lakes, including Ngangla Ringco in the west and Nam Co (Na-mu-ts'o) in the east.

Climate
Tibet has a semiarid climate. The average annual precipitation is only about 381 mm (about 15 in) and is considerably less in many areas. The southeast has the heaviest precipitation. Temperatures in the mountains and plateaus are generally cold, and strong winds are a common year-round feature. The most equable climates are found in the river valleys. The average annual temperature is about 1.1‹ C (about 34‹ F); precipitate drops in temperature after sunset are characteristic.

Vegetation and Animal Life
Vegetation on the Northern Plateau is extremely sparse, consisting for the most part of grasses and shrubs. Scattered wooded areas occur in the extreme west and east. In the main, however, the flora of Tibet is concentrated in the valleys on the Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej. These areas support several species of trees, including conifers and oak, cypress, poplar, and maple. Apple, peach, pear, and apricot trees are cultivated in the river valleys.

Wildlife in Tibet is diversified. Musk deer, wild sheep, wild goat, wild ass, yak, and Tibetan antelope are common in mountainous areas. Other large mammals found are the leopard, tiger, several kinds of bear, wolf, fox, and monkey. Birdlife includes bar-headed goose, gull, teal, and other species of waterfowl, as well as pheasant and sand grouse.

Mineral Resources
Tibet is rich in mineral resources, only a few of which have been exploited. Gold occurs in many areas, and significant deposits of iron ore, coal, salt, and borax are also present. Other known mineral resources include oil shale, manganese, lead, zinc, quartz, and graphite. Jade, lapis lazuli, and other precious and semiprecious stones are also found.

Population
The Tibetan people form a majority of the population; Chinese, however, form a sizable minority. Tibetan, one of the Sino-Tibetan languages, is the principal language. Before Tibet became part of China, Lamaism—a form of Buddhism—was the religion of the overwhelming majority of the population. Practice of the religion has since been severely restricted. A significant part of the population is nomadic or seminomadic.

The population of Tibet, according to the 1982 census, is 1,892,393. Tibet has the lowest population density of any region of China. The capital and only important city is Lhasa (La-sa), which has a population of 310,000 (1986 estimate). The other major town is Xigazê (Jih-k'a-tse).

Economy
Economic activity in Tibet remains dominated by subsistence agriculture. Livestock raising is the primary occupation of the Northern Plateau. In addition to sheep, cattle, and goats, the herds include camels, yaks, horses, and other beasts of burden. Arable land is limited in area, concentrated mostly in the river valleys. The principal crops are barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and various vegetables and fruits. Cotton, soybeans, and hemp are grown as commercial crops. Some coal is mined. Manufacturing has expanded but remains limited to a relatively few small-scale enterprises. Textiles and electrical equipment are among the manufactures.

Tibet has no railroads, but the road system, which was almost nonexistent before 1950, has expanded considerably. A trans-Tibetan highway runs from west to east. Other highways connect the region with Xinjiang and Qinghai on the north, with Sichuan on the east, and with Nepal and India on the south. The most important of the several airports is at Lhasa.

History
Before the 7th century ad, when Buddhism was introduced into Tibet, the history of the region is legendary and obscure. Buddhist missionaries developed an alphabet for the Tibetan language, initiated translations of the Buddhist sacred books, and conducted a relentless struggle against shamanism, the indigenous religion. In the period of Buddhist penetration, which led to the development of Lamaism and a powerful Lamaist hierarchy, Tibet was a strong kingdom. Toward the close of the 10th century the kingdom began to disintegrate, eventually splitting into a number of petty principalities. The Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan incorporated the area into his empire in 1206. In 1270 political power was bestowed on the head of the Lamaist hierarchy.

Chinese Sovereignty
The Chinese Empire acquired sovereignty over Tibet in the 17th century but in the course of the following two centuries Chinese authority steadily diminished. Meanwhile, British colonial officials in India, initially Warren Hastings, attempted to secure a foothold in the region. These efforts were fruitless, mainly because of Tibetan resentment over a Nepalese invasion in 1790, which the British supported. In 1904 Tibet, then virtually independent of Chinese authority, was invaded by the British, who were alarmed over Russian influence in the country. The expedition laid the foundations for an Anglo-Chinese convention of 1906. By the terms of this agreement, the Chinese Empire acquired recognition as the sovereign power in Tibet. The agreement also provided for the payment of a large indemnity to the British, who subsequently withdrew their troops. In 1907 the British and Russian governments concluded an agreement pledging noninterference in Tibetan affairs.

Nominal Independence
Tibet attained nominal independence from China following the revolutionary overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in 1912. All Chinese officials and troops were expelled from the country by 1913. In 1914, at a conference, held at Simla, of representatives of the British, Chinese, and Tibetan governments, tentative agreement was reached on a convention regulating mutual relations. Among other things the convention provided for an autonomous Tibet and for Chinese sovereignty in the region, called Inner Tibet, contiguous to China proper. The Chinese government subsequently repudiated the convention, which was signed by Great Britain in July 1914. In 1918 the strained relations between Tibet and China culminated in armed conflict. A truce was arranged, with British help, in September of that year. Subsequent efforts to conciliate the dispute were unsuccessful.

Reincorporation into China
In October 1950, little more than a year after the Communists gained full control of mainland China, their troops invaded Tibet. To rally the nation against the advancing invasion force, the regency in November invested the Dalai Lama (1935- ), although still a minor, with full authority. The Tibetan government capitulated in May 1951, however, signing a treaty that provided for the maintenance of the power of the Dalai Lama in domestic affairs; for Chinese control of Tibetan foreign and military affairs; and for the return from China of the Lamaist spiritual leader, the Panchen Lama (1938-89), reputedly a partisan of the Communist regime. Communist military units reached Lhasa in October. The Panchen Lama arrived there in April 1952.

Chinese Activities
During 1952 the Chinese, accelerating a communications-improvement program launched the previous year, completed airfields in various parts of Tibet and continued with the construction of military highways. A purge of anti-Communists was reportedly carried out early in 1953.

In June 1954 India recognized Tibet as part of China and withdrew the garrisons it maintained at two Tibetan-frontier trading posts. The Dalai Lama was subsequently elected a vice-president of the National People's Congress, the Chinese legislative body. Under the terms of an agreement signed in April 1955, India relinquished to China its control of the Tibetan telegraph, telephone, and postal services. A committee was established in 1956 to prepare a constitution for Tibet; the Dalai Lama was named chairman and the Panchen Lama first vice-chairman.

Tibetan Revolt
In 1956 Indian and Nepalese sources reported Tibetan uprisings and guerrilla activity against the Chinese regime. Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) declared a few months later that Tibet was not yet ready for the establishment of a Communist regime. In the latter half of 1958 widespread anti-Communist guerrilla activity was reported in eastern Tibet. It was believed that the rebellion was provoked by attempts to institute so-called people's communes, similar to those established in other parts of China, in which people labored under quasi-military discipline in order to increase production. In December 1958 the Chinese announced that the establishment of people's communes in Tibet had been postponed. The rebellion, however, was not contained, and in March 1959 it flared into a full-scale revolt in Lhasa. The Dalai Lama fled to India at the end of the month and subsequently established a community of Tibetans there. The Chinese then crushed the revolt and made the Panchen Lama head of state. On October 21 the United Nations General Assembly approved a resolution deploring the suppression of human rights in Tibet. A similar resolution was passed on March 9, 1961.

Present Status
Of the tens of thousands of Tibetans who fled abroad after the Chinese invasion, most settled in India, while most of the others took refuge in the Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan. In 1965 Tibet was formally established as an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, and Beijing announced that the region would undergo steady socialist transformation. The Panchen Lama, who had been removed from his post in 1964, was readmitted to the regime in 1978. He repeatedly appealed to the Dalai Lama to return. The Chinese in 1980 admitted that Tibet had been misgoverned and announced reforms for the region. Violent demonstrations protesting Chinese rule occurred in October 1987 and May 1993.